Governance

Kwuth Ta-ow {our teachings}

The following document contains some of the cultural components of the Sliammon people.  It is by no means an all-encompassing document of all traditions practised.  Each family has their own traditions and it was not my intention to leave some family practises out of this document.  If your family traditions are not included in this document, I apologize.  Each family’s practise deserves to be acknowledged and respected and it is hoped that everyone will add to this document to make it as complete as possible.

I would like to respectfully acknowledge the Sliammon Elders without whom this information and document would not be possible.  Thank you for sharing your knowledge and teachings and passing it on to your children and grandchildren so that our culture will live on forever.   

     The following document contains some of the cultural components of the Sliammon people.  It is by no means an all-encompassing document of all traditions practised.  Each family has their own traditions and it was not my intention to leave some family practises out of this document.  If your family traditions are not included in this document, I apologize.  Each family’s practise deserves to be acknowledged and respected and it is hoped that everyone will add to this document to make it as complete as possible.

     I would like to respectfully acknowledge the Sliammon Elders without whom this information and document would not be possible.  Thank you for sharing your knowledge and teachings and passing it on to your children and grandchildren so that our culture will live on forever. 

     Ta—ow is a very important word to our elders.  There is no exact English translation to capture the importance and emotion of the word.  Your elders pass it on to you, a discipline that comes from your grandparents and sometimes from your parents.  Your Ta—ow is how you were taught and will dictate how you behave and carry yourself, both in a private and public arena. 

     Your Ta—ow is your inner being and it is imperative that you respect other people and their Ta—ow, it is not for you to judge it should it happen to differ from your own.1    Ta—ow is all encompassing of who you are, it is a connection to a set of rules that our people lived by in the past.  Ta—ow captures how our people governed themselves.  They believed in peace and harmony in the community.  Our people were friendly people and that is how we governed ourselves.  We all have Ta—ow, it is a teaching of all nations.

     Ta—ow also encompasses the spirit of a modern day constitution:  Peace, order, and good government.  The principles of Ta—ow coincide with that of a good constitution.  A constitution written by the people will promote harmony and peace2    People who know their Ta—ow make excellent leaders for the community and an example of this is found within one of many memories of Chief Tom. 

     When Chief Tom was at a community meeting he was sitting at the door with his daughter welcoming people as they walked in.  The meeting was on the new welfare system that was being introduced to Sliammon.  One woman walked into the meeting feeling very angry.  She walked up to Chief Tom and demanded to know why she was not getting more money than the other members of Sliammon.  She proceeded to explain that she was royalty and deserved more money.  She became very angry as Chief Tom sat quietly and listened to her.  She took her cane and began hitting him on the head and on the shoulders.  Yet Chief Tom did not retaliate.  He remained quiet and did not argue with the woman or even raise his voice. 

     However, his daughter grabbed the cane away from the elderly woman and threw it across the room.  Chief Tom stood up and told his daughter to go and pick up the cane and hand it back to the woman and apologize.  The girl did so and through out the meeting it was not mentioned again.   When they arrived at home Chief Tom gathered all of his children together and began to explain to his daughter his feelings on her behaviour. 

     He was not afraid of the woman who was hitting him.  He could have yelled back at her or grabbed the cane away, but he chose not to lower himself to her level.  That was not a battle for his daughter to fight for him.  The woman was making a spectacle of herself by yelling and hitting him with her cane and he told his daughter that she joined the elderly woman.  She lowered herself to her level.  It was seen as shameful and in poor manners.   Chief Tom informed his children that this type of behaviour was not to be tolerated. 

     As punishment he made all of his children gather up all of the food that they had in the house, cook it and prepare it into three baskets.  The first- basket was to consist of salmon and potatoes.  The other basket was to be full of meats and the third was to be the remainder of the food.  The children were then instructed to bring the baskets to the elderly woman’s home and apologize to her for grabbing her cane away.   Once she accepted their apology they were to spend the day cleaning her house.   As the children were cleaning the old woman began to realize what she had done was terribly wrong.   -

     The lesson that Chief Tom was teaching to his children was that when someone wants to be angry, they have problems that are not your own.  So don’t join them in their anger.  Just sit and listen and don’t answer back.  It is not that you are afraid of them or don’t know what to say, you just do not want to lower yourself to their level.  In the biblical sense, it would be considered turning the other cheek.3

     You may not realize that you have been learning your Ta-ow your entire life because it is not something that is directly taught to you.  It is something that is showed to you through the actions of your elders, your mother, and your grandmother.   It is also repetition of certain things that you are asked to perform or told about repeatedly until it is burned into your mind.4    You can tell who is living by their Ta-ow and who was raised right.  It is obvious in their behaviour and they become role models in the community.  Each family has the same Ta-ow.  The same guidelines of behaviour apply to everyone in this community.5  

     When an individual departs from their Ta-ow it is readily noticeable to the people.  When you see people arguing or fighting and making a spectacle of themselves, it is not because their family had a different Ta-ow while growing up.  It is because something happened to them and therefore the -Ta-ow was lost to that family.6   The following list consists of examples of Ta-ow guidelines of behaviour.  It is not by any means an exhaustive list, but merely several examples that were identified.

• Always work toward achieving and maintaining peace and harmony.
• Do not get involved in arguments because that is not the way of ourpeople. 
• If someone wants to argue then you sit quietly and do not answer back.  Don’t lower yourself to their level.
• Repetition is how our people remember events and teachings.  Repeatthings that are important so our people will never forget.
• Constant communication is crucial to our well being as a community.  Do not be afraid to come together and discuss issues of importance.
• Discipline your children to behave respectfully.  It is important to respect your elders.  They have so much wisdom that could be lost when they pass away.  That is why it is so important to listen to them.
• Respect other peoples dwellings.  If you need to rest or to eat then you
• Go to your own home. Do not be wearing out your welcome there.
• Do not scream and yell or play around other people’s homes, there is an outside for that. 
• When you see an elderly person or member of the community doing a task then you offer to help, even if they may not need it.  It is considered rude to simply walk by and not offer to be of assistance.
• When your elders are speaking to you, it is considered rude and aggressive to give them eye contact.  It is only animals that stare because they fear an attack.  This is not the behaviour of our people. 
• Elders will occasionally ask you to repeat what has been said to you.  This is done to (a) ensure that you have been listening and (b) to ensure that you heard and processed the information correctly.
• Do not be a greedy or stingy person.  It was imperative to the survival of the community that everyone shared everything and replace what you borrowed or were given when you have the resources to do so.
• Nothing on this earth is our soul possession.  The creator put us here to share.  We are merely borrowing what we are using right now.  When we pass away we can’t take land and resources with us.  We need to share it with all. -
• Work hard every day.  Don’t be lazy.  Be thankful for what you have and don’t worry about what you don’t have.  The creator will reward you for your efforts here on earth.
• Let your elders eat before you.  Always make sure to serve them their meals before you have your own.  Always ensure that your guests have been served first and that they are satisfied and comfortable when they come into your home.7
• These are the teachings of our elders.  Nothing was ever written down, it was all verbal and repeated over and over.  The key to Ta-ow is that it is your inner being it is who you are.  

Leadership:

     Sliammon has gone through three known stages of leadership.  The first know stage was the Headmen of each extended family house.  The second stage moved Sliammon into a hereditary chieftain system and the third is the current democratic election system.  Normally the families all lived in major house groupings and there was one man among several semi-independent households.  He was a man who was looked up to because he was older, wiser, and because he was best fitted to represent the family in its outside affairs.8

     Although the house members frequently asked him for his advice he did not possess any power to enforce his opinions, people were permitted to do as they pleased.  However, his opinion often carried great weight because he was the one who had to generate family support for any program within the household and often contributed heavily out of his own resources.  Also, in some cases he had to exert his influence over other headmen.9

     The headman of each household held no formal office and owed his strength and influence to the confidence and support of his fellow household heads.10 The headmen of each household met daily to discuss items of importance such as: minor group policy, adjustments, intentions to give feasts, and distributions.  Various dates were set and help was sought if need be.  Family issues and work was also discussed.  Seasonal moves were also contemplated.  These meetings resembled a conference meeting of team managers.11 If a headman should act in a manner that was unacceptable to the family household or if his actions jeopardized the life, rights, or security of the others, there were no formal restraints placed on him, but there were repercussions.  Some of which were: ridicule, threat of physical violence, withdrawal of moral support, the threat of social isolation.  Other historians and anthropologists also referred to these headmen “chiefs.”12

Hereditary Leadership:

     This method of leadership was also developed in Sliammon and was decided along lineage.  The Chief was awarded the position from his father, always going to the eldest son in the family.  This boy was raised to be a well respected man and had no difficulties assuming the position.13  Examples of hereditary leadership: in Sliammon it was, Captain Timothy who inherited the position of Chief from his father and who in turn passed it on to his son, Chief Tom.  In Church house the hereditary Chief was Alec Paul. 

     The Chief had to monitor his own behaviour at all times.  He had to ensure that people respected him and his family who would be inheriting the position.  If the Chief behaved in a manner that disgraced his position and the community then he would be relieved of this position and it would go to the next eldest brother.14 The Chief was not normally responsible for the day-to-day activity around the community.  He had a group of men whom he called the watchmen who did the majority of the work and reported back to the Chief and consulted with him.

The Watchmen:

The watchmen were the equivalent of the Chief’s councillors today.  They were the eyes and ears for the Chief.  The watchmen were not elected to the position by way of community consensus alone.  They were men who would apprentice with the current watchmen of the time.  They would begin as young boys, following the watchmen around and learning about the position.  Then once the watchman that they happen to be following could no longer perform his duties, he would pass the position on to the younger man.  Once the position was passed on, the retired watchman would provide advice to the newly appointed.15

They were very active in the community doing a lot for the people.  They were very well respected men who acted as role models.  They went around to every home in the community on a regular basis to make sure that everyone had what they needed.  Although they couldn’t provide help out of their own resources, they did their best to bring it to the attention of the community.16 The Watchmen were very strict and whenever a wrong had been committed it was their responsibility to handle the discipline.  Once an accused had been identified the watchmen would request that person’s attendance at a community meeting.  If it could be proven that the individual was in fact guilty of the offence in question that person was publicly punished.

     Typical punishment included going into the centre of the hall and kneeling on the ground with their arms straight out, palms facing up.  The offender could not put their arms down until the truth surfaced.  As they disclosed the truth the offenders would have to ask the community for forgiveness for the shameful act (s) that had been committed.  A modification on this form of punishment was to place rocks in the hands of the offender and if he was able to keep his arms raised then more rocks were added. 

     Other forms of punishment that have been identified were sending offenders to complete a set amount of work for the individual that was wronged.  For women the watchmen were very strict.  An example of this was that a woman in the Sliammon community who had made a dress for herself and nicely fixed her hair.  The watchmen were notified of this and approached her and told her to attend the community hall later that evening.  She attended and was informed that she exhibited poor judgment by dressing herself up so nicely.  She was tempting the young men in the community and that was unacceptable behaviour for a young woman. 

     This group is similar to today’s policemen.  There were two different groups of watchmen.  The first group’s duties were related to the church and its functions.  Ensuring attendance at Church and meeting the needs of the visiting priests.  The second group of watchmen were called night watchmen.  Their soul function was to monitor the community from dusk to daybreak.  They ensured that people were in their homes before dusk and that nobody was out during the night.17 

     Other typical duties of the watchmen included ensuring that the elders had enough supplies in their homes and sending children to chop wood for people in the community.  They also preformed baptisms and when an individual passed away they were the ones who would go and perform the last rites and lead the prayers.  A major duty of the watchmen was to arrange marriages for the people of the Sliammon community.  The watchmen of Sliammon, Squirrel Cove, Sechelt, and Church House would meet to discuss who would be a beneficial union.18 

     Some names of watchmen from the three communities have been identified.  From Sliammon the watchmen were Sandy Timothy, John Louie, and Frank Williams.  In Church house it was Alec Paul (Shep’ aw’ tess) and in Squirrel Cove it was Johnny Dominick and Johnny Bob.19  

     People in the community were not typically afraid of them.  If you were living an
honest, hardworking, god fearing life and behaving yourself and minding your Ta-ow then there was really no reason to be afraid of them.  They were beneficial to the community ensuring that people did not go without and performing various ceremonies in the community.

     Sliammon had many traditional ceremonies that were practised daily.  Some of the ceremonies were more prominent than others, but each was of value to the Sliammon people. 

Burning Ceremonies:

     Burning ceremonies are very much a part of life in the Sliammon community.  This type of ceremony is used extensively and practiced in each family; even today when a loved one has passed away a burning ceremony takes place.  This type of ceremony is done to honour your deceased loved ones and it is done out of respect for those people who may be hungry.  It is also done to help you because the creator is watching as you are doing the burning and the food that you are burning will come back to you and your family ten fold.  It comes especially when you need help.20 

To begin the ceremony

        A bon fire has to be started and maintained.  The food has to be prepared and placed in a container or box.  Before boxes, food was placed on bark plates.  Typical foods used are fish, potatoes, bannock, grease, and berries.  The box is then brought to the fire where the entire family is waiting.  Those people participating in the burning ceremony are to carry a small piece of cedar bough with them through out the ceremony.  This is done because there are deceased ancestors there who are curious or excited that you are doing a burning and they will come and stand beside you and brush up against you.  The cedar bough prevents any negative things from happening to you from coming into contact with a spirit.

     When the box is placed on the fire everyone has to turn away from the fire when the food begins to burn.  When turning away from the fire people are to turn to the right, not to the left.  This is done because it was thought that if you turned to the left then you wanted to follow the path of those passed away.  It is also necessary to turn away because it is considered rude to be facing those who are eating.  They are your guests and you should not be staring at our ancestors while they are eating.   

     As the food is burning an elder who is conducting the burning ceremony -will call on a respected individual who has passed away and ask them to act as the host and feed the people on the other side and distribute the food evenly.  As you are burning you call out the names of the people that you want to feed.  It is also prudent to put a second plate of food for those ancestors that you are forgetting to name.  The third plate to be added is for the individual that you have called on to assist you with the burning.  If you are doing a burning that is for a person who has passed away that day, then you set that plate aside with a cedar bough on top of it and burn it last. Those people that you have called to the burning who have passed on are the guests of the person who has recently passed away, which is why the recently deceased eats last.

     The food must be burning by three o’clock otherwise it would be better to conduct the burning another day.  If food falls off of the fire then the person conducting the burning must make sure to pick up the fallen foods and throw it back into the fire.  If there is food or items on the ground that were meant to be burned it will create confusion for the deceased.  They will keep coming back to that spot wanting the items that have fallen out of the fire.  This is why it is imperative to burn everything.  Once the food has been burned if there are clothing items that belonged to a deceased, those items can be added.

     With clothes and possessions the most common, efficient way to burn those items is to hold it over the fire on a stick so that it burns quickly.  This is done for each item.  If you pile the clothes on the fire they will burn, but they will also flake and not completely burn.  If there are items that relatives or friends would like to keep then those items have to be passed through the smoke three times in clockwise direction and a request must be made to the deceased, asking permission to keep the item.  Then the person hangs it out in open air for three days and washes it before use.  This is done so that the deceased will not bother the person by coming back to visit to look for the item because the reason for burning possessions is so the deceased can take it with them to the spirit world.21

     It is important that before the fire goes out make sure that everything intended to be added to the fire has been burnt.  Once that is done, all of the participants of the burning give their personal piece of cedar bough to the one conducting the burning to add to her bundle to be brushed with all of the boughs.  The cedar bough is protection from the spirits that you have come into contact with.  -

     Other guidelines followed by people at a burning ceremony are rules such as children are not welcome at a burning ceremony.  They like to run around and play and they may bump into a spirit.  This is considered rude and may anger the spirits and the children will become ill.  They are too young to understand the significance of the ceremony and therefore do not belong at such an event.  Also, people are not permitted to chew gum or be smoking.  This is because it is seen as teasing the spirits and they will touch your mouth.  This makes your face go crooked and once this occurs it is important to rub cedar boughs on your face to repair the facial structure.   -

     Upon leaving a burning ceremony it is important to go and clean yourself.  You should bathe in cold water and take your clothes and wash them immediately or hang them out for one night to clean them off.   It is preferable that you go the river or ocean and bathe.  If you choose the latter, then you must walk in to the water to waist level then dive in, making sure to completely submerge yourself.  You then swim in a complete circle and surface.  You repeat this procedure two more times.  You should have swum a total of three complete circles.    These burning ceremonies can be done whenever you feel the need, when you are being visited, or if you want to mark a special event.-

Winter Ceremonies:

     Winter ceremonies were also practised among Sliammon people.  The Sliammon community gathered together in Grace Harbour during the winter months and that was a time for feasting and celebrating.  They worked hard all year long and the winter season was a time to relax and celebrate.  The winter ceremonies consisted of dancing, singing, and feasting. 

The Nuhum:

     A common feast held during the winter ceremonies was the Nuhum.  It was a feast held for all members of the village held during the winter at any time when the chief felt he could give them.22 There were no gifts given at this feast just foods.  Everyone ate at the expense of the host and had fun.  The Chief was able to assert and reaffirm his status by displaying his generosity.23 Anyone present could begin his spirit song and dance during the festivals and all would join in the drumming and singing.24

     There were three types of masks used at the winter ceremonies.  A common mask at these winter festivals was the Tal Face.   This mask was the most important of all.  There was two variations of the Tal Face: (a) the crooked nose and (b) the hooked nose.25 The Tal Face mask originated in Sliammon extended family house owners #1 & #4.  They were very proud seal hunters.  If the son’s of the owners of the mask wore the mask when dancing, they carried harpoons.  -

     The right to wear a Tal Face mask was a hereditary one.  However, in some cases whoever could afford to do so, had a Tal Face mask made for their own use.  This could be done with or without payment to the owner of the privilege.    In most cases some form of payment was offered to the mask owners.26-

     The second most common mask at a winter ceremony was the Titaos Mask.  This mask belonged to Sliammon House Owner number five.  This family consisted of warriors.  During their dance they wore the mask and carried weapons or paddles to display “how a warrior goes off to war.” 

     The third most common mask was the Swaihe Mask.  These three mentioned masks were the only ones that were made out of wood that were used among the Salish.  There were several other masks in use, however they were not as common.

     Sliammon House owners # 2 and #5 also had the privilege to show the mask of a deer and the boys carried bows and arrows when dancing.  Women did not wear masks.  Instead they danced wearing shell spangled blankets and bark headdresses along side of their masked brothers.  These types of masks were associated with the special talents and occupations of the owners.  An important Sliammon man who was a bow maker owned a deer head mask and his sons acted as deer hunters.27 

     Often the owners would hire song composers to create a few songs to accompany certain masked dances.  The progression of all dances at winter ceremonies was prearranged and the dancing followed a specific order. For example, a spirit-sanctioned dance would take place after a deer head masked dance. 

     There were several different dances performed at winter ceremonies.  One of these dances was the Imitative dance.  These dancers performed many types of dances and were not limited to one type of performance.  One type of imitative dance was the Raven dance.  A man would flap his arms, cawing, and hopping around.  He had Raven feathers attached to his arms and a bird’s beak projected from his forehead. 

     A second type performed was the Crane dance.  This dance was performed in much the same manner as the Raven dance. The Yellow Jacket Dance was another type of Imitative dance.  The dancer wore a stinger attached to his brow and wore a blanket painted to represent the insect.  To symbolize the swarming of yellow jackets he threw handfuls of feathers up as he moved about.

      The last type of imitative dance was the Owl Dance.  The dancer was thought to have received powers from the dead and pretended to look for spirits among the living audience.28    

     Shamans also put on displays at winter ceremonies.  They demonstrated their ability to walk on hot coals and would display his powers to the audiences.  He would also collide with members in the audience and the victim of the Shamans stare would fall over dead, bleeding from the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth.  Then by touching him, the dancer restored the victim to life.29 The winter ceremonies were a great opportunity for the Sliammon people to relax and enjoy the shows put on by its members. 

Commemorative Ceremonies:

     This ceremony also incorporated the use of the Tal Face mask also known as a’aja’ bustan.  The appearance of a Tal Face Mask at this type of ceremony honouring a deceased father signified the transference of that mask to his heirs.  The members of the deceased’s family would hire song masters to compose cry songs for just such an event.  The song masters were typically paid approximately 20-30 blankets for the compositions.30 This ceremony was done to let the community know that it was the son’s responsibility to take over the mask after the death of his father. 

Cleansing Ceremonies:

Cleansing ceremonies are started at a very young age, just before puberty.  When a person begins to participate in cleansing ceremonies they are to do the ceremony every day for one year and if the individual is strong willed they can continue to do the ceremony as long as they feel the need.The purpose of the cleansing ceremony is to make you a strong person both mentally and physically.  It makes you wake up early in the morning so that you will not be a lazy person.  The reason that it takes place at the river is because the water gives you a pure mind.  If you are not able to get to the river then it is encouraged that you cleanse with cold water in the mornings at home.

     It takes place at the river, first thing in the morning before sunrise.  Every morning you go to the same spot at the river because you do not want to intrude on anyone else’s space and because the branches that you are using as part of the ceremony, need to be put into the same pile and it gets built up.

     Before entering the water you rub hemlock all over your body because the hemlock causes cuts to let the bad stuff inside of you come out.31  When you enter the water you dive in and swim in one complete circle, swim to the bottom and get a mouth full of water.  Then you surface and spit the mouthful of water in the direction of the sun.  You repeat this procedure two more times.  As you bathe in the river or water at home you ask the creator to help you to become a better, stronger person. You talk to the creator and ask for help for yourself and for your family. 

     Then you get cedar boughs and rub it all over yourself and some individuals even rub ka’chay’en all over themselves.  This is done because it is a very strong plant and it is a preventative medicine.  Another practice of the cleansing ceremony is to swim to the bottom of the river and grab a dark, smooth rock and rub it all over your body to make your body strong.  Once you have used the rock then you throw it in the place that you got it and you go to the same place the next time to get the rock. 

     Once you have completed this ceremony then you tie all of the used cedar boughs together and keep them facing in the direction of the sun.  You pile all of the hemlock branches in the same pile beside your spot at the river.  It is important to keep in mind that you do not touch other people’s cedar bundles and hemlock piles.  These branches are spiritual to them and it carries their personal thoughts and feelings.32

Sweat Lodge Ceremonies:

     Sliammon people also used the sweat lodge to seek help to their personal issues and to cleanse themselves.  Most of the sweat lodges were for individual or immediate family use.  Many sweat lodges were made close to the river using the riverbank wall as the main structural support.  Supporting branches were added to enclose the sweat lodge.  A fire pit was created outside of the structure in which rocks were placed into the fire until they were red-hot.  Then the individual used wooden sticks to pick up the rocks, brought them into the sweat lodge and poured cold water on top of them.  This created a good steam inside of the lodge. 

     Some of the young men who entered the sweat lodge would rub Ka’ Chay’en on their bodies prior to entering the sweat lodge because this was used as a medicine to clean out your ailments.  In some extreme cases men would drink this medicine before entering a sweat lodge to clean out their bodies. 

     However, this medicine is fatally poisonous and this can only be done under the supervision of an experienced user.  To drink Ka’ Cha’ en you would not be allowed to eat for at least one week prior to drinking it.  Once you drink it and enter the sweat lodge and sweat this out of your system it also makes you regurgitate which cleans out your stomach.  This practise is no longer in use today.33  

     Now it is more common to use Cheh Khyee or Devil’s Club.   This can be made into a solution that you are able to drink and will not be poisoned by doing so. 

     People who used the sweat lodges were seeking personal help for ailments as well as for help to clear their minds of things that are troubling them.  It is a sacred healing place that people turn to when in need.  Some elders have noted that it is not wise to use group sweat lodges because that is where they leave their stress and all of their troubling thoughts.  As they perspire their sweat and pain soak into the cedar bark.  When you begin your sweat and start to perspire then what ever they were trying to get rid of will drip back onto you.  After you have done your sweat it is important to remember to go and cleanse yourself in the river as a final step.34  

     There are four directions in the sweat lodge that each must be recognized because each has its own place in the cycle of life.  They are: birth, youth, adulthood, and elder.  Each person who enters the sweat lodge will at some point go through all the stages of life and it is important to acknowledge them.35

The Potlatch (Tle7enek):

     This was a prestigious ceremony.  The potlatches held in Sliammon were not as elaborate as those held elsewhere.  Guests from other villages were invited to attend and was always held in late spring when the weather was decent and made for safer, easier travel.   Potlatches were held indoors and each guest was seated according to their social ranking, which was very important because this was a way to assert status. This term is a Nootkan term adopted by all.  The activity at a Potlatch was similar to other ceremonies.  There is feasting, singing, dancing, and speeches.  However, the only main difference is that there is a gift distribution.36

     Lots of foods and goods had to be amassed for a potlatch and the idea of hoarding was below the host.  Instead, he would lend food and items out to members in the community and the debtors would repay twice what they borrowed.  The day prior to a potlatch the host would call all debtors to his home and call in all debts.  This was a common practise.  It was expected that the recipients would return equal or more gifts at their own potlatches.37

The Heisut Ceremony:

     This ceremony could take place at any time of the year whenever the host felt like having one.  The most common time for this ceremony was during the winter months when all the people were together in the village, relaxing from the demands of hunting, fishing, and gathering.  This ceremony was not held for some personal gain, it was mainly to get together and relax and have fun.  There was no major protocol followed.  The guest list was limited to distinguished non-relatives residing in the host’s village or in a closely adjoining village.  The guests at this ceremony received equal amounts of gifts and food and were not expected to make return gifts later on.  The gifts that were distributed were thought to be lost to the host.38

The Piiyeys:

     A feast was held and there was a distribution of gifts that took place within the host’s own village and in some cases to a neighbouring village.  This type of ceremony was held to publicly acknowledge a change in the status of the host or a member of his family.  It was held to celebrate a name giving, a marriage, the erection of a grave post, or to increase the status of his children.  People were invited and asked to witness what was taking place.  At some of these ceremonies there was a public display of family owned ceremonial privileges such as: songs, dances, and masks.39    

The Ishithut:

      This type of ceremony was held to uphold family honour or to wipe away shame brought upon the family by one of its members.  The host’s family distributed foods and gifts and the amount given depended on the status of the recipient. The gifts never had to be returned in future ceremonial gatherings.40   

Naming Ceremonies:

     Sliammon naming ceremonies were not as elaborate as other communities.  The elders met and decided what your Indian name would be and handed it to you.  When you receive a name it is an acknowledgement.  You wear that name with pride and do not do anything to bring shame to it.  If you wear your name and respect it then you are living up to your namesake, you are respecting them by living well.  If you do something or behave in shameful manner then the elders can and will take that name away from you.  It is possible to have more than one name.

        You wear your name until it is time for you to pass it onto a family member.  Your name is usually passed onto your children and grandchildren.  However, names can come from aunts and uncles as well.  Your name helps other people identify which family you belong to.41

     A naming ceremony consists of elders and guests being called to a ceremony to witness the giving of a name.  A feast takes place and guests are seated according to ranking.  Distinguished guests such as elders are seated at the front of the seating arrangement closest to the area where the ceremony will take place.  The guests are served and as dinner is taking place the gifts are brought out in view of everyone.  Once the feast is completed then the naming ceremony takes place.  Each name recipient is given their name, told what it means, and whom it belongs to.  You are then instructed to respect your new name and not to bring shame to it.  Once the recipients have received their names the gift distribution takes place.  The guests are also entertained by dancing, singing, and various speeches.42

     The above noted ceremonies are some of traditions that are practised by the Sliammon people.  It is not a complete list of all ceremonies that were participated in.

Ka’ chay’ en:

     This plant is also known as False Hellebore and is fatally poisonous.  It is a very strong medicine carefully used by all native people.  It is a plant that is found high up in the mountains of the Bute and Toba Inlets.  It looks like a carrot plant and is about 2 1⁄2 - 3 feet in height and has big leaves on it.  It is usually found by a water source.  You don’t really use the plant itself, the root is the main component used.    The spring season is the best time to pick this particular plant.

     Runners used it for muscle strength and aches.  It aids the muscles so that you don’t tire easily.  It was thought to help make you stronger.  It is also an effective medicine to treat arthritis.  Men mainly used this plant as preventative medicine.  If they had a wound or suffered from arthritis they would grind the root of the plant into a fine powder and mix it until it became a clear liquid rub.  Then they would cut through the first layer of skin and rub in the liquid to heal the ailment.43

     In some rare cases men would drink this liquid, but only in the company of an experienced user due to the deadly poison of the plant.  If you choose to do this then you can not eat any food for at least one week prior to drinking it and you need to be in a sweat lodge so that you can sweat it out of your pores and the heat will enable you to regurgitate the medicine, cleaning out your stomach.44 

Drinking this Ka’ chay’ en is not encouraged because it is uncertain how it will affect each person and there is no clear amount to prescribe.  It is mainly used as a cream and rubbed into wounds and painful areas. 

Cheh khyee:

     This plant is also known as Devil’s Club.  It is a small brown tree with lots of big leaves and has a sweet smell to it.  It almost looks like a rose bush.  It is mainly found by the side of a river.  It is used for stomachaches because it clears out your system working like a laxative.  It is also used for colds and for arthritis.  Some individuals even use it to help improve eyesight. 

     When you are preparing this plant for use you pick off all of the thorns and scrap the sap off.  Then you use the inner bark.  You boil the bark for several hours and the result is a brown coloured broth.  If you wish, you can strain out the bark bits.  When you are not feeling well you should not eat for at least one week and drink this mixture.  Sliammon people still commonly use Cheh khyee today.  It can be found through out Sliammon through to Wildwood.  It can be readily found by the highway bridge and by the creek.45

Koo-ma:

      This medicine is also known as Ratfish Oil.  The main purpose of this oil is for bad itchy coughs, especially in children.  It is also used for pregnant women; it is poured onto the stomach that allows tender muscles to be massaged.  If an individual is feeling irritable, especially a baby, you warm up the oil and massage the baby with it.  It will put the baby into a deep sleep.  It the baby has an upset stomach then you can put a few drops into the baby’s mouth and it will calm their stomachs.  

     It is made out of the liver of the ratfish and because the liver is so small it requires many fish.  The liver is boiled into a clear liquid, which is tasteless and has very little smell.  It can be stored in a container and kept forever once it has been boiled into a clear liquid.46

K’lenah:

     This is also known as Ooligan Oil.  It is very good for chest colds and head colds.  There are many different kinds of K’lenah made.  One method is to mix it with spruce pitch by chopping the tree and steeping it so the pitch comes out.  Melt the pitch and mix it with the grease.  However, it should be clear, looking like water.  It shouldn’t have any smell to it.  It takes away the sick feeling and achy body.  It works similar to today’s cough syrup.    K’lehah is still very much in use today.  Some families even use Ooligan Oil on their salmon and potato meals.47

Alder Bark:

     This is mainly used for sprained ankles, arms, wrists, and for sore muscles.  When you do wish to use it you use the soft inside bark and crush it into pieces or like a fine white powder.  Then you boil it until it turns brown like tea.  You cool it off and rub it on your sore spots.  It is also common to soak your feet or arm in a bucket of this liquid when it is warm.47

Cherry Tree & Hemlock Bark Mix:

     When using this mixture you must be very careful.  This mixture is poisonous.  It is a remedy for the flu, cough, and soar throats.  You cut strips from the inner bark of the tree then boil it and chew it. 48

Mother’s Breast Milk:

     When a woman was breast-feeding she would give some of her breast milk to a person who had an eye infection because that is what was used to clear up eye problems.49

Pregnancy & Birth:

     There were many beliefs and customs followed by women during pregnancy.50 Couples incorporated many tricks into their efforts to have children.  If they wanted a son they would place mini paddles and a bow and arrow underneath their bed.  If they wished to have a daughter they would drink from a special stream in the Bute or Toba Inlet.51

     Sliammon women were careful to restrict their diets when they were pregnant in order to ensure the birth of a healthy baby.  They observed many food restrictions such as: not eating spring salmon as it was sure to cause fainting spells in the baby, it was also forbidden to eat the meat of a deer that was shot while swimming because it would cause the baby to foam at the mouth, and loon soup was avoided because the loon has two eggs and was thought this would cause the woman to have twins.  However, the woman was encouraged to eat marten meat and by doing so would result in the child growing up to be as slender as the marten.  The woman was also encouraged to avoid going near Arbutus trees because touching it would result in the baby having wrinkled skin.52

The birth of a baby:

     The actual birth took place outside of the house in a temporary structure.  The woman gave birth on top of mats made out of cattail plants for their absorbency.  As she gave birth she was encouraged to squat and hold onto a pole set into the ground in front of her.  After the umbilical cord was cut the baby was rubbed with a special mixture of ratfish oil, dried balsam fir needles, and powdered, roasted roots of the cow parsnip plant.  Then the child was bathed.53

     A soft cloth soaked with ratfish oil was kept over a baby’s navel to assist the healing.  During this time the baby was fed warm water, partially dried seal blubber, and small clams to suck on.  The mother did not breast feed the child for at least 3 days after the birth.  It was important to the mother to deal with the afterbirth properly.  It had to be covered with ratfish oil, wrapped up, and

taken to the woods and buried in a dry place where animals couldn’t get to it.  If this was not done then the mother would always be cold.       

     If the new mother wanted to avoid becoming pregnant again right away then she would wrap the after birth in an oily sack with old woven cattail mats and put it in a dry rotten log.  When the navel of the infant healed and the dried stump fell off it was also wrapped in an oil soaked rag and placed in a spot where it wouldn’t be disturbed.  If not, the child would be noisy and mischievous.54

     The baby was massaged every day to make the limbs grow strong and straight.  The ears were pierced with porcupine quills when the infant was  a couple of days old and when it turned 4 days old there was a small feast to celebrate its birth.  However, the baby’s first major public announcement did not take place until the child turned one year old.  Up until its first birthday the baby did not have a name, but rather was called by a nickname.  On its first birthday there was a feast and gift distribution and the child received its name.  These public ceremonies were a form of traditional record keeping in Sliammon.55

Illegitimate Births:

     Illegitimate birth outside of marriage brought shame on the family of the woman, the baby, and the new mother.  The mother and child were often killed in this case.  The solution to this was a ceremony called a washing.  Guests of the host family were called in to a feast and given gifts.  The guests usually were given blankets in the name of the child with the understanding that the child was to assume a place in society signified by its name.  Usually about 200 blankets were given away at this ceremony. 

     No more reference was to be made in the future about the child’s illegitimacy.  In the future if anyone, even in the heat of a quarrel, slurred the illegitimate person in such reference, the consequences were very serious.  The offender had to invite guests to a distribution of blankets at which the insulted person received the most items.

Puberty & Adolescence:

     There were many guidelines that had to be followed for boys and girls.  Each had their own customs to follow however, some practices where the same for each group.  Puberty was the time to start to train boys and girls and prepare them for adulthood to become strong and successful people who contribute to the community in a positive manner.  It was thought that boys and girls in this stage had a great deal of natural power.  Their touch could be positive or harmful.

Becoming a man:

     A young boy was sent out of the village to train for spiritual help.  He was sent to a lake or stream; it had to be somewhere that very few people go.  He would stay for sometimes one year.  He ate little, took sweats daily, and bathed every day in the morning and after a sweat rubs himself with cedar boughs.  He created his own sweat lodge made out of bark and mat covered structures. 

     The first three months of puberty training were the hardest.  Morning and night bathing were all that was necessary for the first three months of training.  Some boys also began training by the ritual of cutting arms and legs.  The knife that they used to cut was only used for this purpose.  They cut with just the tip of the blade and once the bleeding stopped they poured a water and hellebore mixture into the wound.56 

     Vision quests were done in order to gain spirit guardian power.  The boys would go around the lake laying their used branches side by side around the entire lake until they reached the place where they started and would dream about an animal that would give him his powers. 

     Boys are taught that when you see your animal or spirit guardian you should not be scared or run away from it.  Go to it and touch it because if you run from it you will lose what you’ve been working for.57

     If you do not wish to go to a lake and train for one year in order to receive your spirit power, another method of training to become a young man is to cleanse every morning.  This is similar to the cleansing ceremony that has previously been described.  The key points to remember are that the young men need to be up prior to sunrise and sit and meditate about things and tasks that they wish to accomplish.  Remember to talk to the creator and ask him for strength and guidance.  After that is completed and you have entered the water and done your three circles, if you wish to swim then you must always swim up stream because all of the negative energy you have inside of you will wash away from you.  If you swim down stream then you will be following everything negative that you were trying to rid yourself of.  Then you can continue with the cedar sweeping.58

Becoming a woman:

     It was thought to be dangerous to come into contact with a pubescent girl.  She was kept in seclusion in a cubicle above the families sleeping compartments.  While there she was given very little to eat or drink.  She was not allowed to touch or look at anything or anyone because she had the power to spoil things.  If she needed to go outside to bathe or to relieve herself then she had to be covered with a blanket and look only at the ground.  Her hair was tied in a knot in the back of her head and she was not allowed to touch it out of fear she would go bald.59

     Every morning she would be taken out to bathe at 5:00 a.m. and she would rub her hairline with a special rock that was thought to make her hair grow long and healthy.  She also rubbed her teeth with a smooth black rock to make them healthy and strong.  Then she’d throw the rock back into the water.  Her face was then painted with a mixture of burnt stinging needles and charcoal.  She also wore a band of inner red cedar bark around her wrists and ankles.  During her bath she would also grab a snake and let it go down the front of her body.  As fast as it would squirm down her body, would be the speed in which she would give birth to her future children.  If she wanted to obtain special powers then she would continue this bathing ritual even after her period of seclusion.

     Even after the seclusion period was over the woman was expected to talk, sleep, and eat very little.  The family was strict regarding her behaviour, she was to remain quiet and her behaviour was monitored very closely until marriage because premarital relations were not tolerated at all.  After puberty the women kept track of their age by tattooing dots on their arms and legs.  They usually did this in the winter by rubbing snow on the spot to make it numb and poked a hole in the skin with a needle and inserted ratfish oil and charcoal into the dot.60 

     Women were always encouraged to behave in a lady like manner and to respect themselves.  The upper class parents always kept a closer eye on the behaviour of their daughters, preparing them to be patient and tolerant.

Society, Adulthood, Marriage:

     Sliammon had a structured society with very specific ideas of acceptable behaviour.  These behaviour patterns were fiercely adhered to as your behaviour often reflected which class you belonged to. 

     Sliammon had three different class structures in place.  The first was the aristocratic class.  They were considered the well-bred people and among members of the community they were considered “Real Men and Real Women.”  They knew their Ta-ow and were always conscious of it.  Any deviation from their Ta-ow was not tolerated under any circumstances.   The second group or class was the common people.  They were those that were living in the extended family of the aristocrats.  They are the backbone of the community and of the household.  The third group was the slaves or poor class.  They were easily distinguishable.  However, one thing to keep in mind is that the class structure was never really verbally spoken about.  Individuals and the class lines were not clearly defined and did not point it out.  It was just something that you were aware of, but rarely spoke of.61 

Extended Families: 

The highest unit of common allegiance was the extended family.  There was no tribal officer or council to answer to.  The actions and rights were governed by a set of traditions and theoretical laws and rules.  These rules of behaviour were learned and internalized from very early youth.  Ignorance of the law was no excuse.  A well-bred person from a good family knew the rules and took pride in his/her knowledge of them.  It displayed good breeding and proper etiquette to respect and observe these rules/laws.  It was beneath the dignity of a well-bred individual to commit a breech.  Pre-marital sex in an aristocratic family was not tolerated.  There were no exceptions.  The seduction of a well-born girl was equated to the seriousness of murder. The punishment for such actions was murder.  If the seducer was of aristocratic class he would usually not be murdered.  He would be severely punished by his parents and the two would be married with the least amount of fuss.  Due to the lack of a real solution to this problem is evident that this situation was very rare.62 

Slaves:

     The slave class was the most recognizable in the community.  The circumstances of their enslavement were critical.  They were either obtained as prisoners of war or they were purchased from a warrior who had obtained them as prisoners.  Slaves were not maltreated, but they were made to feel their positions by being denied comforts and luxuries.  They lived in the house with their masters, but had to sleep on the floor and were not allowed to participate in ceremonies or festivals.  They worked for their masters, but didn’t work any harder then the rest of the people.  The main difference was that the products of their labour did not belong to them.              

     Their hair was usually cut short and if they wished to get married it would be up to the master to decide and it only be considered if the couple was owned by the same master.  Should that couple produce children then the children would also become slaves of the same master.  Slaves were always from a distant enemy group and were always captured as children.  Any adult captured would usually be ransomed or killed.

     Not everyone in the community could afford to own slaves.  Their economic productiveness hardly outweighed the expense and nuisance of having them around.  They were mainly considered evidence of a warrior’s strength or of a rich man’s ability to buy and maintain them.  The number that one could afford to own or care for didn’t amount to anymore than three or four.63 

Conflict & Warfare: 

     The three neighbouring villages Sliammon, Klahuse, and Homalco all made adjustments to maintain harmony because the three groups went to Grace Harbour every year as that was the main winter village.  There was no real reason to fight amongst each other.  A cause of warfare, as rare as it was, was the grief over the natural death of a child or other relative.  They would reason that it was unfair to him to suffer while others were without grief, so in some cases the bereaved would encourage a murdering and plundering expedition.  It is important to keep in mind that this was on very rare occasion.  Sliammon people were peaceful people not interested in warfare.

     On occasion some crimes were committed among members in the community.  In the case of an ordinary murder the settlement had to be made immediately.  If the price demanded by the victim’s family was not met, retaliatory attacks occurred by surviving relatives.  The father, uncles, and close kin of the murder would all try and help to meet the payment.  If they could not meet the full payment then the headman of the household would make up the difference.  The amount requested often depended on the status of the deceased.  In the case of accidental homicide the payment was still requested before contact could resume.  In the case of an accident the deceased’s family did not feel as outraged as they would have in the case of premeditated murder.

Conflict Among Friends:

     If two men fought then the assailant or the least injured party took the initiative and sent a few (ten or twenty) blankets to his antagonist.  The latter then returned a portion of the gift, the amount returned depended on his feelings about the matter.  If anyone witnessed a fight then both parties had to call all the people of the village and give a face saving feast.-

Marriage:

     Traditionally parents arranged marriages for their children when they were toddlers.  Typically marriages were sought within the same class or higher and were done for economic reasons such as: resources available in one area that were not readily available in another.  The accepted age for a girl was mid to late teens and for a man it was in his early twenties.  There was a great deal of communication between the families prior to the marriage.  Once an agreement had been reached then the young man, his father, and influential family members traveled to the girl's village to present the girl's family with highly valued gifts.64

     On their approach to the girl's village they would sing family songs and important men stood on planks between two canoes.  They gave speeches of family status and on the merits of the union.  The girl's family remained aloof through out this showcase of family prestige.  On landing the young man and his family go to the home of the girl and the man sits alone at the entrance of the house until further negotiations and discussions are completed.  Once the father accepts the young man he is led to the corner of the house, fed, and wrapped in a blanket. 

     All of the villagers are then called to the house to witness the formal transfer of wedding gifts and a great feast and distribution takes place courtesy of the man's family members.  The girl's family returns gifts for the new couple to take back home to his village.  The practise of arranged marriages fell out of popularity in the 1940's and has not been practised since in this community.

     It is common for Sliammon men of high status to have several wives.  Each wife had her own compartment in the house that she occupied with her children.65 

     In other instances where the parents did not secure a spouse for their child during its toddler years, marriages were still arranged when they were of age.  Once again it was the parents that chose the potential spouse who was studied for behaviour patterns, family status, and the level of breeding.  It had to be an individual of similar class or higher.  If a man was pursuing a young lady out of love then the family would test him to see how committed he was. If it were found that he was an acceptable match the men of the village would put this man through a series of tests to show his strength and wit.  If he were committed to this girl he would persevere, but if he were weak he would simply give up.66 

D.  Death

     Sliammon people have always believed that a person's soul was located in the head and once that person had passed away their soul left the body and went to the land of the dead.  Upon death, the corpse was washed immediately and the hair was combed and the body was wrapped in the position required for burial.  The knees were brought up to the head and the arms were wrapped around the legs and the hands were tied under the feet.  Then the body was wrapped in a new blanket and placed in the wooden burial box. 

     The body was placed on view in the home and friends and relatives all stayed at the home to comfort one another.  Children were not allowed to be in or near the home.  The body remained in the home overnight and all family members stayed elsewhere, except one family member stayed near the body in the home.

     The box was then put into a cave on a nearby island or in a site away from the village.67 If a woman passed away and the weather was poor then her face and hair would be covered with bear or deer grease because it was thought to make the weather fair.

     After a burning then the home of the deceased is exorcised as well.  A person will dip cedar bough into water and work clockwise, brushing each room.  They speak to the dead asking them not to bother the family.  All boughs used are then gathered and put in an isolated area of the forest with the stems facing east. 

      The female family members would cut their hair very short and were not allowed to eat fresh foods for at least four days.  This was because it was thought that she was in a sensitive time and her mouth was like poison and if she ate fish, they would disappear from streams.  The Sliammon and the Comox communities erected carved poles to commemorate the dead.68  

     When the husband died often the brother assumed the responsibility for the wife so that the wife and her children could remain in their grandfather's home and be well cared for.  However, if the wife was from a distant community she often went back and remarried there.   Traditionally those who helped prepare the body for burial and those who made the burial box were paid for their services four days after the funeral at a distribution that marked the end of the grieving period.69 

     Currently death is handled in a similar manner.  The body is brought back to the community the day prior to burial.  It spends the night at home with friends and relatives attending to comfort one another and pay their respects.  The coffin lid must be closed by dusk and cannot be reopened until dawn the next morning.  To alert the community that an individual has passed away the church bell is rung according to the gender and age: eight bells represents a male, seven bells represents a woman, five bells represents a child (gender is not identified).   Some rules are also observed according to Elsie Paul, Agnes McGee, and Rose Louie.  When the body is at home nobody is allowed to be playing outside or running around.  Children are not allowed to go to funerals and are not permitted under any circumstances to be in the graveyard.  After a funeral you are not supposed to be hanging around close to the graveyard, you are to go directly home and bathe and hang your clothes out for the night or immediately wash them.  People are also supposed to be out of the graveyard before three o'clock as it is starting to become dusk.  This is because during early dusk is when the spirits are out walking or are easy to contact.

     The Sliammon people have many different areas that access is restricted to due to the belief that it is taboo to go there.   Animals and birds are thought to possess certain powers and skills and are on occasion feared.   

Restricted Areas:

Ma' mak' w'a w'a:

This is a small burial island directly across from Grace Harbour.  Many burials took place there.  People were placed in trees until just the skeleton remained.  This was done to prevent animals from getting to the corpse. The body was then removed and put into a cave that is down near the waterline.  It was a burial ground used long before contact with Europeans, way before our people moved to the current Sliammon community location.  They did not have the tools to dig up the dirt and bury people so they were placed in caves.  Nobody is supposed to go to that island because it is a sacred place where spirits still walk around.70

Heth-a-neth:

Also known as Owls Grove.  It is a clearing close to the river and it is full of white owls. Our people used this area as a fishing location due to the high concentration of fish.  Some people fear this location because of its high concentration of white owls and believe it to be a haunted location visited by spirits who inhabit the body of the white owl.71

Lasqueti Island:

This is also called Circle Island near Texada Island.  It is also a burial ground for Sliammon and some other communities.  Our people do not go there because other communities used this island as well and it would be considered in poor taste to go there and disrupt the resting place of other individuals, especially those whom you do not know.

Potato Point and Graveyard Creek:

These two locations are also burial grounds for Sliammon and Klahoose, and Holmalco communities.  They are located at the head of Bute Inlet and on the Toba Inlet.   All of the communities used to gather there to fish.

A Cave located on this side of Lund:

This is a very large cave that is facing Savary Island.  It is believed that is where the Sea Serpent Ah Hus lives.  The serpent looks like a long snake except it is very shiny and has rough scales and is able to come out of the water.  It is said that it sparkles like the sun and only the purest person is able to see it.72

Belief in Animals & Birds:

Owls:

Owls are thought to be messengers because it is our ancestors who take the form of the white owl so that you will not be afraid to see them and receive their message.  They are warning you of bad news that a close relative will be passing away and that spirits are around welcoming that person to the spirit world. 

Raven:

Is thought to be a trickster.  He is also a messenger.  When you see two Ravens flying side by side then you know to expect news from another community or visitors from another community.  The Crow is also in this same category.  The crow and the raven are also thought to be a nemesis of hunters because they will alert animals when a hunter is in the woods. 

Killer Whales:

Killer whales are very respected.  They are thought to be carrying the spirits of our newly deceased loved ones.  They are taking them to the spirit world, which is why you should never touch them on the back because that is where our loved ones are riding.  If you see them you know something has happened or will be happening shortly.  Whales never forget things so when you see them they are always to be treated with respect. 

Eagles:

The eagle is the kin of all birds. He is very modest and won't brag about anything.  The eagle is the bird that counsels animals and birds and is respectful of all life.  The eagle is what some people try to model their lives after. 

Seals:

Seals used to be tricksters.  They used to tease hunters who used to spear seals and have to jump in the water to get them before they sank.  But, the seal would only pretend to be dead and would grab the hunter and take him to the bottom.  Seals were somewhat feared.73

Fish:

Steel Head Fish were avoided because it was thought to be a snake or relative of the sea serpent.  This frightened people because the sea serpent was thought to be the most powerful of all.  Eating steel head was a great taboo and when one was caught it was promptly released.  Our people also avoided female salmon and their eggs during the first half of the season.  The reason was to conserve fish and the destruction of the salmon was frowned upon.  Our people realized that the salmon needed to go up stream.  Salmon bones always had to be thrown back into the water.  Particular attention was paid to the small white bone in the head of the salmon.

Wolves:

The wolf was the best hunter of all land animals and its hunting ability was given to humans through supernatural encounters.  This is whom the hunter often looked to for help and guidance.  Hunters of sea mammals looked to the killer whale for help and when you spotted one then you would throw eagle down on the water because the killer whale liked this and would help you.  It was believed that sea hunters were reincarnated as killer whales at death and that land hunters were reincarnated as wolves.74

Behaviour Around Strangers:

Children are always told to be careful about their behaviour, especially when in the company of strangers and elderly people.  You can never tell who has the powers of a Shaman or Indian Doctor.  They may use their powers in a negative way against you.  Children should not be running around and misbehaving or causing a scene.  The stranger may put the hex on them by accident and not realize what had happened.75

     Also associated with hunting according to Rose Louie that is still practised today is when hunting it is important to carry a small piece of cedar bough.  This is done to ensure that spirits do not bother you by playing with your mind and getting you lost by making you walk in circles. 

The cedar tree is the most sacred tree to the Sliammon people.  The entire tree was used for a variety of things.  The root was used for making baskets to carry various things.  The bark was used for making bailers, mats, clothing, and hats.  The inside of the bark was used for making rope.  The Cedar Tree was used for wood and was split for making little sticks called, Che' tos' ten.  These sticks were put across the fish for smoking. 

     Or the large sticks called, Kxo' wach' ten for the fish to hang off of in the smoke houses. The Branches were used for collecting herring eggs in the ocean. They are weighted into the water and the herring spawn onto the branches and the eggs are collected.  The branches are also used for cleansing ceremonies and for cleaning a house to keep spirits away.  The cedar tree is a respected tree to the Sliammon people and is still very much in use today.76

     Clothing was made out of a variety of materials prior to contact with Europeans and only certain textures of clothing were worn by certain groups of people. 

    Young to middle aged men wore belts with a front covering cloth of shredded red cedar bark or skin.  When they were playing they drew this or another longer piece between their legs and fastened it to the back of the belt.  Men also wore shirt type apparel.  Front and back pieces were sewn together and sewed pants of knee or ankle length were made out of buckskin. 

     The women wore a sleeved, knee length buckskin gown.  Both the gowns and the men's shirts were v-necks and fastened down the front with bone pins.  The buckskin was used by men while hunting in the mountains and by women during the winter.  Buckskin was not everyday clothing.  It also had a social distinction attached to it.  Not everyone could have it and not everyone knew how to prepare it.77 

     The people who were not as wealthy wore bark clothing.  They could not afford to have buckskin clothing.  Goat wool was also another luxury.  It was considered to be above buckskin and was a true mark of social prominence.  Only the wealthiest man's wife and daughters could afford to wear aprons of goat wool.  Only they wore robes of woven goat wool. 

     Outerwear for men and women consisted of robes thrown over the shoulders and the back reached the calves or the ankles.  A belt at the waist closed it and it was fastened with a four-inch wood bone or copper pin under the chin.  The typical robe was made out of unshaped animal skin with the hair still on it.  Common skins used were bear, wildcat, deer, cougar, and marten.  Robes were also made out of cedar. 

     Moccasins were made out of a single piece of seal, bear, or deer skin.  It was turned up and over the foot and sewed at the heel from the toe to the instep.  A single string lace across the instep completed the moccasin.  A tongue was also added.  When they were not being used the moccasin was stuffed with grass to help keep its shape and from shrinking.78

     There was two types of houses used by the Sliammon people prior to contact and shortly thereafter.  The first type was the shed  (single pitched) roof house and the gabled roof house.

Shed (Single Pitched) Roof House:

     These houses were the most prominent in the southern part of the area.  It had 4 posts set in the ground with 2 in the rear slightly shorter than those in the front.  2 parallel timbers were then fitted on top from the high to the low posts.  The length determined the length of the house.  Usually this was 60-70 feet in length.  If the strength of the timbers could not be relied on, additional support posts were put under them. 

     The poles were then lashed on the timbers at intervals across the width of the house.  The roof planks rested on those poles.  The incline was very slight and the drainage was to the rear eaves.  This technique was followed in making and securing the roof and the wall planks.  Often it was unimportant men who lived in these single sloped structures.  So did well to do families in their secondary dwellings at permanent summer locations.

     The shed house and those made of bark were considered the "cheap kind" of home.  In some of these homes the floor was excavated to two feet.  The original ground level extended three feet beyond the edges of the bed platform before the step down.  In some cases the upper portion of the floor was planked, but never the entire floor.  The roof planks were not trenched and there were lashings between the binding strips and at the apex and eaves.

     The sleeping quarters were not enclosed and the entrance to the home was rectangular and unornamented.  A separate smoke house was built outside with a walking or resting spot in front of the house was held in place by retaining planks.79

The Gabled Roof:

     The essential part was the ridgepole it was supported by 2 or 4 posts at the ends.  There were four other unconnected poles that stood at the house corners.  On top of each pair laid a stout beam that ran parallel to the ridgepole.  The rafters connecting the ridgepole had two parallel beams that were laid crosswise at intervals of 7 feet. 

     Upon these poles were longer poles that were laid parallel to the beams and ridgepoles.  At the intersection the poles and rafters were notched and fitted into each other and lashed with cedar withes.  On top of these poles were roof planks and the planks were as wide and as long as possible.  The planks were always laid crosswise of the ridgepole and parallel to the poles in order to provide drainage from the apex to the eaves.  They were not lashed or pegged, but rested on their own weight.  They also were not joined at the ridge. 

     For better light and ventilation a long pole was used from the inside to lift a loose plank to set it over to one side.  The roof sloped slightly, but was almost flat.  The planks were horizontally lashed to supporting poles of the framework. The boards overlapped to shed the rain and moss and old mat fibre were used for chinking.80

Six Main House Owners:

     Before contact there were six major house owners.81  Some of the Sliammon Elders can still recall details of each house as the information was passed down from each generation and through the notes of Homer Barnet were are able to picture each house in our minds.  Families lived together in extended family houses and depending on size could hold 30-70 families per house.  These big houses were mainly located at a permanent site such as Grace Harbour, a common winter village.  The following section is a brief description of each house.

House Owner Number One:

His house was said to be 100 feet long.  The single ridgepole was composed of 2 end to end poles supported near their meeting place and the 2 end posts were carved into a sea lions head in the front and the centre were two smaller heads.  At feasts oil was poured into a trough cut in the topside of the ridgepole.  It ran out of the sea lions mouth and into fire.  The posts were not carved, but on the gable a thunderbird and the mythical serpent were painted.  In front of the house stood a post carved to represent a man with his hands on his hips and his mouth was open to symbolize him calling the people.  Above his head was an eagle on a pole.

House Owner Number Two:

It was said to be 60-70 feet in length.  It had a sea lion's head on the end of the ridgepole and was otherwise not decorated.

House Owner Number Three:

It had a thunderbird painted on the front of the house and the posts were carved to represent men and were placed in such a location that they were visible from the outside of the house.  There is no record of the length of this house.

House Owner Number Four:

This house had posts shaped to represent men.  A sea lions head was on the ridgepole.  A thunderbird and serpent were also painted on the gable of the house.

House Owner Number Five:

This particular house did not have carvings on it.  It did have a thunderbird painted on the outside front of the house.-

House Owner Number Six:

This house had an eagle painted on one side of the door and a swaihwe mask on the other.  It also had binding poles at the front and the walls extended above the eaves with eagles carved on them. 

Semi subterranean Retreats:

     The Sliammon community had four retreats in order to escape Haida raids.  They were located in four different areas. Scuttle Bay, Grief Point, the east shores of Smelt Bay on the southern tip of Cortez Island, and the west shores of Smelt Bay on the Southern tip of Cortez Island.

     These retreats were 60-70 feet long and ran parallel to the beach and were about 70 feet from the beach.  These retreats were excavated about 6 feet and covered by a flat roof of logs, planks, branches, and earth.  There were also sleeping and storage alcoves dug into the sides of the dirt mounds and an emergency escape towards the back of the retreat.  These retreats were necessary because the Haida used to come to the Sliammon community and kill the men and steal women and children.  A person would be watching at points of entry to the community area and come back and alert the people who would escape to these retreats.

-1. Interview with Ann & Dave Dominick, Agnes McGee, and-

    Katherine Blaney on June 23rd, 2000.-

    Interview with Gene Louie July 13, 2000-

    Interview with Sue Pielle July 14, 2000-

-2.  Interview with Gene Louie on July 13, 2000  (page 3)-

-3. Interview with Gene Louie on July 13, 2000 (page 3, 4)-

-4.  Interview with Gene Louie on July 13, 2000 (pages 3, 4)-

-5. Interview with Sue Pielle on July 14, 2000 (pages 5, 6)-

-6 - 7.  Interview with Sue Pielle on July 14, 2000 (page 6).-

           Interview with Gene Louie on July 13, 2000 (page 5).-

-8-12.  Barnet, Homer. The Coast Salish of B.C. Monographs University -

           Press: Eugene, Oregon, 1955. 243-244.-

-13-14.  Interview with Rose Louie. July 10, 2000 (pages 5-7).-

             Interview with Sue Pielle July 14, 2000 (page 10).-

             Interview with Gene Louie. July 13, 2000 (page 3).-

             Interview with Mary George. July 4, 2000-

-15-16.  Interview with Sue Pielle. July 14, 2000 (pages 7-9).-

             Interview with Gene Louie. July 13, 2000 (page 5).-

             Interview with Rose Louie. July 10, 2000 (page 6).-

-17.  Interview with Mary George, July 04, 2000-

-18.  Interview with Sue Pielle. July 14, 2000 (pages 7-9).-

-19.  Interview with Mary George, July 04, 2000-

       Interview with Sue Pielle, July 14, 2000-

       Interview with Rose Louie, July 10, 2000 (page 11).-

-20.  Interview with Ann & Dave Dominick, June 19, 2000 (pages 4-5).-

        TUS Interviews: Agnes McGee, Rose Louie, Elsie Paul, June 24, '96. (pages 39-40)-

        TUS Interviews: Elsie Paul, May 15, '96. (pages 19-21).-

         Interview with Mary George, July 04, 2000-

         Interview with John and Rose Louie, July 10, 2000-

-21.   same citing information as #20.-

-22.  Barnet, 1955,  page 246.-

-23.  Bouchard, Randy, and Dorothy Kennedy, Sliammon Life, Sliammon Lands. Talonbooks: Vancouver, Canada. 1984.  p.61.-

-24.  Barnet, 1955,  p. 246.-

-25.  Barnet, 1955, p. 302-

-26.  Barnet, 1955, 303-

-27.  Barnet, 1955, 303-

-28.  Barnet, 1955, 304-

-29. Barnet, 1955, 304-

-30.  Barnet, 1955, 236-237.-

-31.  TUS Interview:  Thomas August, Bertha Treakle, Vincent Timothy Sr, p. 32-33-

        TUS Interview: Ronald Harry and Willie Bob, May 9, '96. DB# 36-

        Interview with Leslie Adams, June 2000.-

-32.  same citing information as #28-

-33.  TUS Interviews with Thomas August, Bertha Treakle, Vincent Timothy Sr. pp. 32-33-

        TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, May 15,  '96.  p. 18-

        Interview with Ann & Dave Dominick, June 19, 2000-

        TUS Interview with Joe Mitchell and Sue Pielle 1996. p.1-

-34.  TUS Interview with Joe Mitchell and Sue Pielle 1996, p.1.-

-35.  Interview with John Louie, July 13, 2000-

-36.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 61-

        Barnet, 1955, p. 255-

-37.  Barnet, 1955, p. 255-

-38.  Barnet, 1955, p. 255-

-39-40.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 61-

-41. TUS Interview with Joe Mitchell  and Henry Bob, May 21, '98, p. 16-

-42.  Personal experience of receiving a name.-

-43-44.  TUS Interview  with Thomas August, Bertha Treakle, Vincent Timothy,  p. 32-33-

            TUS Interview with Katherine Blaney, Henry Bob, Charlie and Mona Timothy, May 1996, p. 18-19-

            TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, may 15, '96. p. 12-

            TUS Interview with Ronald Harry and Willie Bob, May 9, '96, p. 3-

            TUS Interview with Bill Galligos, July 11, ' 68, p. 1-

            TUS Interview with Violet MacDonald, June 24, 1996, p.6-

             Interview with Ann and Dave Dominick, June 19, 2000

-45.  TUS Interview with Katherine Blaney, Henry Bob, Mona and Charlie Timothy, May '96 pp.18-19-

        TUS Interview with Alec Paul and Stella Timothy, DB # 49-

        TUS Interview with Leslie Adams, July 30, '96, p. 48-

        Interview with Ann & Dave Dominick, June 19, 2000-

-46.  TUS Interview with Agnes McGee & Lorna McKay,  May 27, '96, pp. 14-15-

TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, May 15, '96, p. 16-

        TUS Interview with Katherine Blaney, Henry Bob, Charlie and Mona Timothy, May 1996-

-47.  TUS Interview with Katherine Blaney, Henry Bob, Charlie and Mona Timothy, May, '96,  pp18-19-

       TUS Interview with Ronald Harry and Willie Bob,  May 9, '96-

       TUS Interview with Maggie Vivier, David George, Charlie Bob, May 28, '96, p. 25-

       TUS Interview with P. Harry and A. Hackette, May 03, '96. p. 3-

-48.  TUS Interview with P. Harry and A. Hackette, May 03, '96. p. 3-

        TUS Interview with Maggie Vivier, David George, and Charlie Bob, May 28, '96. P. 25-

-49.  TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, May 15, '96, p. 12-

-50.  Barnet, 1955, pp. 139-140-

-51.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 43-

-52.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 44-

-53.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 44-

-54.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 44-

-55.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 44-

-56.  Bouchard & Kennedy, 1984, p. 48-

-57.  TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, file 5group-

        TUS Interview with Leslie Adams, July 30, '96, p. 12-

-58.  TUS Interview with Joe Mitchell, July 24, '96, p. 8-

-59.  Bouchard and Kennedy,  1984, p.  51-

-60.  Bouchard and Kennedy, 1984, p. 51-52-

        TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, may 15, '96, p. 11-

-61.  Barnet, 1955, p. 246-

-62.  Barnet, 1955, p. 249-

-63.  Barnet, 1955, p. 249-

-64.  Bouchard and Kennedy, 1955, p. 52-

-65.  Bouchard and Kennedy, 1955, p. 53-

-66.  Interview with Rose and John Louie, July 10, 2000, p. 7-

-67.  Bouchard and Kennedy, 1984, p. 54-

-68.  Barnet, 1955, p. 216-

       Bouchard and Kennedy,  1984, p. 55-

-69.  Bouchard and Kennedy, 1984, p. 55-

-70.  Interview with Ann and Dave Dominick, June 19, 2000-

       Interview with Agnes McGee, Katherine Blaney, Ann & Dave Dominick, June 23, 2000-

-71-72.  TUS Interview with Thomas August, Bertha Treakle, Vincent Timothy, DB#11, p. 16-

             TUS Interview with Katherine Blaney, Henry Bob, Charlie and Mona Timothy, May '96, p. 16

-73.  TUS Interview with Henry Bob and Joe Mitchell, may 21, '98, p. 25-

        Interview with Rose Louie, July 10, 2000, p. 9-

        Interview with Ann and Dave Dominick, Agnes McGee, and Katherine Blaney, June 23, 2000-

        Interview with Mary and John George, July 04, 2000-

-74.  Barnet, 1955, p. 93-

-75.  TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, Joe Mitchell, p. 9-

-76.  TUS Interview with Agnes McGee, July 21 1998, -

        TUS Interview with Joe Mitchell, July 24, 1996-

-77.  Barnet, 1955, p. 71-

-78.  Barnet, 1955, p. 71-

-79.  Barnet, 1955, p. 36-

-80.  Barnet, 1955, pp. 35-36-

-81.  Barnet, 1955, p. 50-

        TUS Interview with Elsie Paul, May 15 '96, pp. 24-25-

         Interview with Ann & Dave Dominick, Agnes McGee, Katherine Blaney, June 23, 2000-

         Interview with Rose Louie, July 10, 2000-

        Interview with Mary George, July 4, 2000-